In the Age of Discovery, galleons carved paths across charted and uncharted waters. With the great promise of “discovery” and riches (and the reality of great suffering by first nations and transported slaves) one truth remained certain: death was never far. In such a world, a phrase echoed through churches, poems, paintings, jewelry and at all levels of society: Memento mori—Remember you will die.
For some, the ancient admonition became a way to control others.
Memento Mori in Tudor England: Meaning, Religion, and Francis Drake’s World
The Latin phrase memento mori traces back to early classical Stoic and monastic Christian thought. Rather than a grim reminder, memento mori encouraged reflection, repentance, and virtue. It reminded all—from kings to commoners—that earthly life was brief and that by remembering what awaited after death, one would be more likely to live a moral life, or complete life as per Seneca’s advice.
How Death Shaped Tudor England
Mortality was ever-present in Tudor England. Life expectancy hovered around forty. Because of growing density of populations, and lack of understanding of transmission mechanisms of infection, new pandemics struck regularly (so much so that it was common practice for Henry VIII to move court from palace to palace).
Capital punishment was also an essential element of public policy. Political executions were public affairs—performed not just to punish, but to instruct and to enforce conformance, such as Queen Mary’s burnings of Protestants and Elizabeth’s quiet purges of Catholics.
The reinforcement had many physical and cultural shapes:
- Skulls engraved on tombs
- Ossuaries (bone architecture)
- Jewelry, such as rings
- Hourglasses and extinguished candles in artwork
- Sermons warning of judgment and the fleeting nature of earthly life
- Church walls bore murals of death and judgment. Epitaphs reminded the living to prepare their souls.
Here is an example of a Tudor period “death head” ring:
Portraits from the Tudor court sometimes featured contemplative statements, not as flourishes, but as reminders.
An example of this can be found in the 1527/1528 Holbein portrait of Sir Brian Tuke. This was a man of importance in the Henry VIII’s court—Tukes was the Royal Treasurer, and authored a preface to William Tynne’s 1532 edition of the works of Geffray Chaucer.
Sir Brian is depicted sitting, staring past the viewer in a contemplative gaze.
While this portrait does not feature a skull, consider the position of his left hand and the note he is pointing to:
Nunquid non paucitas dierum meorum finietur brevi?
Vulgate Bible, Book of Job 10:20
In English, “Are not the days of my life few? Will they not end soon?”
Life in the 16th century was hard, and one should be thinking how they are to live—and die.
Memento Mori for Tudor Catholics: Preparing for Death in a World of Purgatory and Judgment
For Tudor Era Catholics, the idea of memento mori was to prepare for actual death. Proper preparation included confession, penance, indulgences, charitable works and a reflection on mortality.
Daily prayers, including daily prayers for the dead, masses were crucial because purgatory was a terrifying prospect.
Memento Mori for Tudor Protestants: Death, Election, and Spiritual Assurance
Since the Protestants like Drake rejected purgatory and indulgences, there was no possibility for intercession after death and for 16th century Protestants, memento mori took on a somewhat different perspective. Daily Bible readings, perseverance, prayer, and self-examination were essential opportunities to seek personal assurance of being amongst God’s elect.
Death (and Worse…) at Sea: Memento Mori and the Dangers of Tudor Exploration
For sailors and explorers, risking their life every day, memento mori was more real. Captains like Francis Drake led expeditions far beyond the horizon—uncomfortable and dangerous were part of the norm.
Sudden storms swallowed ships. Dysentery, scurvy, and other diseases decimated entire crews. If attacked, a sudden death was preferable to slowly succumbing to infection (from the wound or its care). Even without such external danger, losing one’s grip while high in the rigging was certain death.
Because they could die at any moment, sailors’ preparation took a more pragmatic approach. Though doctrine differed dramatically, their personal and communal coping behaviors were similar in the closeness of shipboard life. The sailors in my book were no altar boys. They saw little moral contradiction between living hard, sinning often, and repenting sincerely to secure God’s mercy. The ship’s community as a form of a common bond in a highly uncertain and dangerous world was important.
James Reynard: Turning Memento Mori into a Weapon in Sic Parvis Magna
In my historical fiction novel Sic Parvis Magna, which dramatizes the early voyages of Drake, this tension becomes one of the undercurrents. For the common sailor, the fears of damnation, of heresy, and of the unprepared death twist together. And, where there is fear… there are always those that will want to use it.
One figure within Sic Parvis Magna stands out for how he wields this power is James Reynard. His life taught him that in Tudor society, public piety often masked private ambition. You can read more about Reynard’s background as a villain in my sketch of his character.
Reynard is not content to consider his death—far from it. Motivated by his sense of unjust loss, his calculating mind and sharp eye are far more interested in maximizing personal gain, to be enjoyed during his life. He knows that memento mori carries weight and uses the fear of spiritual ruin to bend others to his will.
Early in the story, the young Francis Drake, like most characters, is constantly aware of mortality. As a “good Protestant,” Drake follows the practices he knows—Drake does not fear death as much as he fears an unworthy life.
Reynard quietly observes Drake’s private prayer, and correctly concludes that Francis Drake’s goal of a worthy life, given that he is kin to the Captain of the ship, is exactly what is dangerous to Reynard’s plans.
Turning danger into opportunity is a key aspect of his survival.
When such an opportunity presents itself, Reynard sows doubt in the minds of others, weaponizing their fears. He paints Drake’s prayers—Drake—as dangerous, his convictions different and contagious, and that action is required to protect against this danger.
Reynard’s fervent manipulation—a darker echo of memento mori—forms one of the novel’s conflicts.
Lessons from the Tudor Period: Memento Mori Today
Today, the phrase memento mori resurfaces in art, philosophy, and even pop culture. But its meaning is often misunderstood. It is not about morbidity—it is about the meaning of life. It reminds us to live deliberately, to love deeply, and to act justly.
References / Read More
A Real 16th Century Memento Mori “Death Ring” auctioned off in 2024. https://www.invaluable.com/auction-lot/tudor-‘deaths-head-ring-with-an-enamelled-skull-a-473-c-83142da943
Memento Mori, https://www.britannica.com/topic/memento-mori
Holbein Portrait of Sir Brian Tuke, National Gallery of Art, https://www.nga.gov/artworks/72-sir-brian-tuke.
